A Course in Mongolian Shamanism -
Introduction 101
FORWARD
MONGOLIAN COSMOLOGY
* The Four Directions (Durvun
Zug)
* The Ger and the Sacred Circle
* The Upper and Lower Worlds, and the World Center
* Windhorse and Buyanhishig
THE NATURAL WORLD
* Father Sky, Mother Earth, and Heavenly Objects
* The Ancestors
* Tenger, Chotgor, and other Nature Spirits
* Spirits of Animals, Totems, Animal Guides, and Hunting
* Sacred Mountains and Trees
THE
SPIRIT WORLD
* A Multiplicity of Souls, their Form and Function
* The Siberian Circle of Life and the Water Cycle
* When Spirit and Earth Touch: Customs, Taboos, and Ongons
THE SHAMAN
* Becoming a Shaman
* Drumming, Hallucinogens, Paths to Ecstasy
* Riding the Cosmic Steed
HEALING AND CAUSES OF ILLNESS
OVERVIEW OF THE MODEL OF MONGOLIAN SHAMANISM
Foreword
This
is a brief introduction to the shamanic world of Siberia, especially from the perspective of the Mongols. In spite of the
linguistic differences there are overarching themes and images which appear among all forms of shamanism in Siberia. Indeed,
the classic studies of shamanism have given special attention to the shamanism of Altaic peoples such as the Buryat, Mongols,
and Tungus, creating an image of a "classic" Siberian shamanism.
Some of you may find that certain of the features of Mongolian shamanism
which I describe may not completely be true in all its points for all Mongolian or Siberian groups. This is the result of
the great geographic area which they occupy and differences in environment and tribal history which allowed for some variation
from the observances or beliefs of their kindred. Many of you have some acquaintance with the beliefs of Native Americans,
and how their relationship with the world shaped their beliefs and behavior. This is also true of Mongols and Siberian peoples
in general. Reverence for mother earth and father heaven above as well as for all the spirits of animals and nature create
a way of life which expresses respect for natural forces and abstains from harm to them whenever possible.
Mongols believe that the goal of life is to
live tegsh, in balance with the world. One stands alone and in power at the center of the world, with infinite blue Father
Heaven above and Mother Earth supporting and nurturing below. By living an upright and respectful life, a human being (hun)
will keep his world in balance and maximize his personal power (windhorse, hiimori). Heaven and Earth and the spirits of nature
and the ancestors supply every need and protect all humans. Shamans play an important role in restoring balance when it is
thrown off by disaster or spirit interference.
Mongolian
Cosmology
The universe
of the Mongols can be visualized as a circle, not only in the three dimensions, but also in time itself. Everything has a
circular motion, the path of the sun from day to day, the cycle of time from year to year, and the cycle of all living spirits
as they return to the earth to live again and again. Intersecting the circle are the axes of the four direction and the axis
of the center of the world going up to the upper world beyond the eternal heavens and going down beyond Mother Earth to the
lower world. Superimposed on this is the image of the universe as seen through the vision of shamanic journeys, by which the
shaman can climb the world tree or fly to the upper world, or travel down the spirit river to the entrance to the lower world
in the north, or simply find a tunnel in the earth to travel below.
The Four Directions (Durvun Zug)
Awareness of the 4 directions is fundamental to the Mongolian view
of the world. A few Mongolian friends have told me that if they are not aware of their orientation to the 4 directions at
all times they feel ill at ease. The names for the 4 directions corresponds to the words for "front", "back",
"left", and "right." In ancient times the "front" orientation of the Mongols’ world was
to the east, but for some unknown reason it shifted to the south, as it is today.
The Mongolian world view looks from north to south. For this reason
south is called the "front" direction. Correspondingly, north is called by the same word as "behind" in
Mongolian. The right (western) side of the world is regarded as being male in essence, and the home of the benevolent sky
spirits (tenger). The eastern, left, side of the world is regarded as female, and the sky spirits of that direction are believed
to bring disease and discord.
The
Ger and the Sacred Circle
The
ger, known to a lot of Westerners as the yurt, is the traditional dwelling of the Mongols. It is constructed of a framework
of poles (uni) radiating from a center smoke hole ring (tono), which is lashed on top of a circular latticework wall. It bears
a very strong resemblance to the hooghan of the Navaho of the American Southwest. Also, many Siberian peoples, including the
Tsatang and Urianhai Mongols, live in tepees. In all cases the orientation and symbolism of the ger is true for all Mongolian
groups. Gers and tepees (uurts) are designed to be easily assembled or taken down as the nomadic travels of their owners requires,
nevertheless, the imagery and meaning of the ger stays the same no matter where it is erected.
The ger is not only the center of the universe, but also a microcosm
within it. In fact, it is a map of the universe at large, and the vault of the heavens is reflected in the arched shape of
the interior of the ger roof. The entrance is always to face the south, since that is the front of the ger. The north side,
called the hoimor, located behind the fire, is the most honorable spot in the ger. It is here that the sacred objects, ongon
spirit dwellings and other religious images are placed on a table. The sitting place next to the hoimor is the most honored
and is occupied by elders, chiefs, shamans, or other respected guests. The right, west, side is the male side, and is the
sitting place for men and storage place for men’s tools, saddles, bows, and guns. The left, east, side is the sitting
place for women, and cooking utensils, cradleboards, and other women’s objects are placed there. Since the southern
side is the least honored spot, young people are usually seated on the southern part of the left and right sides.
Movement is "sunwise," in a clockwise
direction. The reason why this is regarded as the path of the sun becomes readily apparent if one watches the track traced
by the circular patch of sunlight entering through the smokehole through the day. Whenever moving inside the ger, one must
always move in a sunwise direction. This same movement is also required in shamanic dances, worship, and ritual.
The center of the ger is the most sacred place
of all, the gal golomt, the place of the fire. It is the dwelling place of the daughter of Father Heaven, Golomto, and is
to be treated with the utmost respect. As the ger is the center of the world, so the place of the fire the center of the universe
represented by the ger itself. The vertical axis represented by the column of smoke rising from the gal golomt also represents
the World Tree which shamans ascend to the upper world, the smoke ring (tono) corresponds to the gateway to the upper world.
In some shaman rituals, such as the initiation of shamans in Buryatia, a tree will actually be erected extending from beside
the gal golomt to beyond the smokehole. As the shaman ascends the tree in his ecstatic state he describes his journey to the
upper world. Also, even in the absence of the toroo tree, the shaman will still travel to other worlds after exiting through
the smoke hole, often after his spirit has metamorphosed into a bird.
The ger, therefore, can be seen as a parallel to the Native American medicine wheel,
a physical representation of the sacred circle with a definite orientation to the four directions and the universe at large.
The circular pattern and alignment to the four directions is also retained in outdoor shamanist ceremonies, such as the walking
and dancing around the sacred oboo cairns erected to mountain spirits or the yohor dance around a toroo tree by which the
dancers raise a spiral of energy to carry the shaman to the heavens. Sunwise circular movement is also used in the dallaga
blessing ceremony and in all types of dances by the shaman.
The
Upper and Lower Worlds, and the World Center
Throughout
Siberia as well as among many Native American groups people believe that there are three worlds laid upon one another in the
universe. In some ways, ideas about the upper and lower worlds seem to imply a concept of parallel worlds rather than that
of three worlds being literally stacked like layers on a cake. While the sky is believed to be infinite in depth, shamanists
nevertheless insist that there is a doorway to go beyond the heavens. In the same way, while the earth is believed to be deep
and solid, there are many passages which allow spirits and shamans to penetrate beyond to the lower world. Another aspect
of the idea of the other two worlds is the fact that they are very similar to Earth in that they too have a sun, moon, forests,
and humanlike inhabitants. The dwellers of the upper and lower worlds are invisible in our middle world, and people traveling
from here to those worlds are likewise invisible. The presence of such intruders will be betrayed by a sudden crackle in the
fire, barking by foxes, or by being visible to shamans.
The
lower world is basically similar to this world except that its inhabitants have only one soul, rather than the three possessed
by human beings. The ami soul, which causes breathing and warmth in the body, is lacking, so lower world dwellers are cold
and have dark blood. Furthermore, some of the dwellers in the lower world are actually the suns souls of human beings awaiting
reincarnation. The sun and moon are not as bright as in this world; the Samoyed say it is because the sun and moon of the
lower world are actually half rather than full orbs. The lower world has forests, mountains, and settlements just like this
world, and its inhabitants even have their own shamans.
The
ruler of the lower world is Erleg Khan, son of Father Heaven. He has authority over the disposition of souls, when and where
they will incarnate. Shamans often must appeal to him when recovering souls which have prematurely wandered away to the lower
world before the body has died. Outside of these situations, people from the middle world rarely enter the realm of Erleg
Khan except after death.
Travel
to and from the lower world goes by many routes. One route is by way of the World River, which flows into the lower world,
and its entrance is protected by Mongoldai Nagts, who prevents souls from entering the lower world before the body is truly
dead. Nevertheless, sometimes souls slip through and must be retrieved before the illness caused by the soul’s absence
causes permanent damage. Travel along the World River is very perilous and it is full of rapids. It is said that when a shaman
falls dead during a lower world soul retrieval it is because the trip was too dangerous and his soul was lost. During his
journey to the Lower World the shaman also may need to confront and placate Mongoldai Nagts and Erleg Khan and convince them
to let the soul return. The lower world may also be entered through caves, whirlpools, springs, or one of the many tunnels
through the earth which lower world beings use to travel up to this world.
The upper world, like the lower world, appears very similar to this
world. The upper world, however, does not normally house the spirits of human beings, although shamans may travel there. It
is brighter than this world, some legends say that it has seven suns. Descriptions of the upper world say that it resembles
the earth, but nature in that world is still unspoiled and its inhabitants still live in the traditional ways of the ancestors.
The ruler of the upper world is Ulgen, who is also a son of Father Heaven. Sometimes the brightness of the upper world will
be revealed when the doorway between the worlds is opened. This will be seen as rays of sunlight shooting out from beyond
the clouds, and prayers said when this occurs are especially powerful.
Travel to the upper world requires flight, and shamans often change themselves
into birds in order to make the journey. They may also ride upon a flying deer or horse for the journey. The route may be
straight upward, or toward the south, to the source of the world river. Some accounts of shaman initiations involve travel
to the upper world and initiation by the spirits there before the shamans’ initiation in this world. Another way of
travel to the upper world is climbing the toroo, Tree of the Universe, which is represented by a tree at shaman ceremonies.
The shaman will climb the tree while in a state of ecstasy and his soul will at the same time ascend the actual toroo tree
to the heavens. Yet another route is suggested by the Dagur Mongol word for shamans’ power dreams—soolong. In
standard Mongolian solongo means rainbow, and the shaman may be traveling in his sleep over the rainbow to the upper world
in order to retrieve the information he brings back from the dream.
Earlier in this chapter the ger was said to represent the center of the world.
In reality, each person stands at the center of the world in his own consciousness. Shamans in doing their work also locate
themselves in the center of the world during their rituals. Many different images are associated with the center of the world.
The most familiar one is that of the place of the fire in the ger, which is the meeting point between the earth and the axis
connecting the three worlds. The other is the toroo tree, which also creates an axis as well as a pole for ascent and descent.
Siberian and Mongolian traditions locate the tree at the center of the world, but also in the south, where the upper and middle
worlds touch. By the world tree, which some say "stands at the border of day and night", the world river enters
the middle world from the its sources in the upper world. According to the traditions of the Altay, Bayan Ami, lord of the
forest animals, will be encountered during the ascent of this tree and will grant the shaman geese to assist him on his journey
to the upper world. The top of the toroo tree touches the sky by the pole star, the altan hadaas, the sky nail which holds
up the heavens. The other image of the center of the world is the peak of Mount Sumber, the world mountain. The peak at the
center of the world is close to the pole star, and its roots rest upon a turtle in the lower world.
Windhorse and Buyanhishig
Shamanism deals with personal power and bringing good fortune into
one’s life. While every day brings an individual into contacts which intersect one’s personal world with others,
the core issues of life lie within one’s personal universe. In this individual aspect of the cosmos, a person stands
at the perfect center of the universe, supported by Mother Earth and enveloped in the clear blue vastness of Father Heaven.
At the center one’s cosmic soul (suns) shines as a bright white star, and the body soul (ami) is a red point of light.
One can fly freely within the vastness of space or travel upon the earth. Because each person has their own path, one is ultimately
responsible for one’s actions.
Personal
psychic power is called hii (wind), or hiimori, (windhorse). This force is housed within the chest and will vary in size according
to how one uses and accumulates it. Very strong windhorse allows one to think clearly and analytically and see through deception.
Windhorse is the power which allows shamans and other powerful people accomplish what needs to be done simply and easily.
Use of one’s personal power toward harmful ends or to upset the balance of the universe depletes windhorse, which is
one reason why truly evil people tend toward self-destructive behavior over time. Windhorse can be increased by actions to
restore balance in the universe and through religious practice. Simple everyday actions foster windhorse, such as offering
drink to heaven, earth, and the ancestors, prayer, and veneration of the heaven, earth, and the spirits of the ancestors and
nature. Sacred smoke from incense, sage, thyme, juniper, and other herbs can raise windhorse when done during shamanist worship.
Sacrifices are another way to raise windhorse if done for specific purposes or at the traditional festivals.
A related concept to windhorse in buyanhishig,
which is blessing from Heaven or the spirits. One can view buyanhishig as being almost like a bank account which can be increased
or decreased according to one’s actions. A large accumulation of buyanhishig (also known as buyan for short) will result
in good fortune, protection from harm, and happiness. One can also lose buyan by violating taboos, showing disrespect for
the spirits or the ancestors, or by offending the spirits of nature by killing animals for no purpose. Personal filthiness
also is harmful to buyan. Buyan is increased through acts of generosity such as giving food and drink to visitors and donating
goods to needy people. Buyan, like windhorse, is also increased through living an upright (yostoi) life, religious acts, and
sacrifices. Father Heaven and the spirits can also be called through the dallaga ritual, which literally beckons buyan into
one’s life or into the community when done collectively. It is done by making a circular motion with the hands in a
sunwise fashion accompanied by the words "hurai, hurai, hurai!"
By being conscious of windhorse and buyan one can walk one’s life path in
power, safety, and with good fortune. This attitude toward life creates self-awareness in one’s actions and consciousness
of how individual actions shape one’s own fate. The ideal person learns to live yostoi (following the customs), which
means living respectfully and not violating the taboos against upsetting balance in the world.
The Natural World
The endless stretches of taiga forest, the immensity of the blue sky over the steppe,
and the majesty of Lake Baikal and the Altai, Hangai, and Sayan Mountains inspired awe and wonder among the Altaic peoples
of Siberia and Mongolia. Living off the land and depending on nature for their sustenance created respect for living creatures,
even though they had to be killed for man’s survival. Waste was taboo, and an insult to Father Heaven and the spirits
of nature. Human beings’ relationship with nature was seen as one of interdependence rather than one of exploitation,
and this reverence for the natural world allowed for the survival of Siberian cultures for thousands of years on their land
without degradation of their environment. This way of life is expressed well in the ideal of tegsh, living one’s life
in balance with the world and preserving balance in nature and human society. Actually human culture and society are not seen
as unique or different from that of other living things; rather, human society, even at its most complex, is still only an
expression of natural processes. The mythology of Siberian peoples, especially the tales which parents tell their children
to explain why things in nature are the way they are (uliger), show that animals and even trees think much the same way as
human beings and may even appear as humans under certain circumstances. The forest, mountains, lakes, rivers, rocks, and trees
all have their spirits and they need to be respected for their gifts to mankind in the form of foodstuffs and shelter.
Father Sky, Mother Earth, and Heavenly Objects
The core beings in the shamanist religion are
Father Heaven (Tenger Etseg) and Mother Earth (Gazar Eej). In history Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan), the unifier of the Mongolian
nation, based his power on a mandate from Tenger himself, and headed all his declarations with the words "by the will
of Eternal Blue Heaven." Father Heaven is worshiped for what he is, the timeless and infinite blue sky. He is not visualized
as a person, although he is said to have at least two sons. Worship of Father Heaven and Mother Earth is almost universal
in Siberia, and is found in North America as well.
The
weather is seen as a direct manifestation of Tenger’s disposition. Tenger is the creator and sustainer of balance in
the world, and the natural processes of weather and the circular motion of the seasons is sustained through him. Lightning
is a sign of Tenger’s displeasure or an indication of a site of high spiritual powers. When a lightning strike is a
sign of displeasure, a shamanist ritual and yohor dance are made around the site where the lightning hit in order to send
it back up to Heaven. Objects struck by lightning or meteorites and ancient artifacts are called Tengeriin Us (Heaven’s
hair). They contain a spirit (utha) which is a concentrated package of Heaven’s power. Lightning struck objects (nerjer
uthatai) and meteorites (buumal uthatai) can be placed in milk or liquor to energize the liquid with the spirit of the object.
Shamans drink this preparation to incorporate the power of the utha spirit. Another form of Tengeriin us is the bezoar stone,
which is used in rainmaking magic.
No
shamanist ritual starts without the invocation of Father Heaven, Mother Earth, and the ancestors. Everyday activities acknowledge
Tenger’s presence and is integral to living one’s life aligned with the balance of the universe. When a new bottle
of liquor is opened, the top portion of the contents is poured into a container, taken outside, and offered to Father Heaven,
Mother Earth, and the ancestors. This ritual, called tsatsah, is a very crucial one in the religion of Mongolia and Siberia.
Housewives also offer milk and tea in the same way, walking around the ger flicking the liquid three times in each of the
four directions. Tenger’s role in determining fate is acknowledged in everyday speech in phrases such as Tengeriin boshig
(Heaven’s will). Women are required to keep their kitchens and cooking utensils clean because to allow them to become
dirty is an insult to Father Heaven. Prayers and offerings are made to Tenger on holidays and at times of sacrifices to the
mountain spirits. There is also a special sacrifice to Father Heaven in times of emergency which is a private ritual. Rainmaking
rituals directly address Tenger, and are held at oboo shrines dedicated to Tenger and the mountain spirits. Every human being
has the right to appeal to Tenger directly for help; however when balance has been disrupted by calamity or the intrusion
of a powerful spirit the shaman will use the power of his spirits to restore his patient’s connection with Tenger and
state of balance with the universe.
The
crown of the head has a small piece of Tenger residing in it; it is the point of connection between the individual standing
in the center of his world and heaven above. This point receives energy from Tenger which flows down the center of the person’s
soul sphere. This piece of Tenger in a person’s crown has a counterpart star in the heavens. The star shines brighter
or dimmer according to the strength of the person’s windhorse. At death, the star goes out.
Mother Earth (Gazar Eej), like Father Heaven, is not visualized in
human form, but for what she literally is, the earth from which we draw nurturance and nourishment. She is also called Itugen,
and the names for shamans, especially female shamans, are variations on the name (yadgan, utgan, udagan, etc.). This implies
that shamans, have a very strong association with the veneration of Mother Earth. Her daughter, Umai, is the womb goddess
and caretaker of the body souls roosting in the World Tree. Umai is also known as Tenger Niannian, which comes from the Tungus
word for "soil." Trees are a manifestation of Mother Earth’s power, and worship of Mother Earth may be done
at trees which suitably reflect her power and beauty. Mother Earth and her daughter Umai are appealed to for fertility. Another
daughter of Mother Earth and Father Heaven, Golomto, the spirit of fire, is spoken of as begotten by flint and iron. Sitting
beneath the smoke hole in the center of the earth, the sunlight falling upon it from above and being created by products of
the earth, minerals and plant materials, fire is a re-enactment of the original union between heaven and earth. The light
of the fire is a reminder of the light of Heaven, and its heat recalls the nurturing quality of Earth. Like trees, all human
beings draw strength from the Mother Earth below as well as receiving the energy of Father Heaven through the crown of the
head.
The sun and moon
are the eyes of Tenger; they are also seen as two sisters, and their essences are fire and water. Their light represents the
power of Tenger shining eternally upon the earth. The cycles of the sun and moon demonstrate the circularity of time and all
other natural processes. For that reason, time is irrelevant from the standpoint of Siberian shamanism. Time circles around
infinitely, so each point in time is in contact with every other. For that reason, time and distance have no meaning in shamanic
rituals, and a shaman can be in direct contact with any time or location without moving. The center of the earth can be anywhere
and in any time.
The amount
of buyanhishig available from heaven seems to vary directly with the moon cycle; the most powerful days are at the times when
the moon is new or full. The sun cycle, the solstices as well as the equinoxes, is coordinated with the moon cycle to set
dates for festivals. For instance, the White Moon Festival which starts the year is held on the first new moon after the winter
solstice, and the Red Round Festival is held on the full moon closest to the summer solstice.
Several other heavenly bodies are considered to have spiritual power.
One is the planet Venus, Tsolmon, which can appear both in the morning or at night. It is often painted on shaman drums to
invoke its power. Tsolmon is the sender of comets and meteors, which are called war arrows. The Big Dipper is called the Doloon
Obgon (the Seven Old Men). Their position points out the location of the Pole Star (Altan Hadaas), which holds up the sky.
The observation that the constellation rotates around the axis of the Pole Star through the year led to the creation of the
has temdeg symbol, which superficially represents the swastika but actually represents the position of the Big Dipper in the
four seasons. Interestingly, this symbol is not only found in Siberia but in several Native American cultures as well, which
may indicate a very ancient origin. The Pleiades are revered as another group of powerful spirits, and it was also the place
where the sky spirits of the western direction met to decide to send the eagle to the earth as the first shaman. During the
White Moon festival fourteen incense sticks are kept lit, seven for the Seven Old Men, and seven for the Pleiades.
The Ancestors
The spirits of the ancestors are invoked in all rituals along with
Father Heaven and Mother Earth. According to Siberian and Mongolian shamanist tradition the soul actually consists of multiple
parts, usually three, each of which has a different fate after death. One sub-soul, known as the suld or unen fayenga, remains
on earth perpetually as an ancestral spirit. Ancestral spirits remain in contact with their descendants and other relatives,
usually as protectors and helpers. After several generations these spirits may not remain with their relatives’ households
but will be available and ready to help when called. By that time they have become part of the group of ancestors invoked
as deedes mini during prayer. Ancestral spirits, after ceasing to reside with their relatives, will usually find a residence
in a natural place such as a rock, spring, or tree. They can be called by shamans as helper spirits during rituals and settled
into an ongon spirit house.
Certain
spirits are recognized as ancestors even though they are not necessarily ancestors in a literal sense. Mongols revere Blue
Wolf and Red Deer as their distant ancestors, and the Buryat Mongols have a mythical ancestor named Buh Baabai Noyon (Prince
Father Bull). The bear is regarded as an ancestor by many Siberian groups, in fact the Mongolian word for bear is actually
a form of the word "father" (baabgai). Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan) is regarded as a protector ancestor spirit of
the Mongolian people and is worshiped both as a patron of the nation and a protector of marriage. The sacred place of Mongolian
dwellings usually include pictures of Chinggis Khan and deceased relatives and any ongons which shamans may have created for
the family’s use.
Tenger,
Chotgor, and other Nature Spirits
There
are many different types of spirits in the sky and in nature; some are very strong and cannot be mastered by shamans, others
are relatively easy to control. No spirit should be disturbed or controlled unless for the purpose of restoring balance, and
not for any frivolous purpose. Spirits are not greater or lesser than living things with bodies, only different in essence,
and should be treated with the same respect as humans or animals. The strongest of the nature spirits are the sky spirits,
tenger, who live at each of the four directions. The eastern and western tenger are associated with the black and white shamans
in those Siberian tribes that make the. The western tenger are said to have created man, the dog, and all the food animals,
while the eastern tenger created the eagle, the animals forbidden to eat, and the disease spirits. Because the world needs
balance between good and bad in order to be stable, the eastern tenger are not necessarily considered evil. The greatest of
the western tenger is Ulgen, son of Father Heaven and lord of the spirits of the upper world. The greatest of the eastern
tenger is Erleg Khan, Ulgen’s brother and lord of the spirits of the lower world. Usan Khan, the lord of the water spirits,
is invoked from the southern direction; Keiden, also known as Tatai Tenger, is invoked from the north, he is the controller
of violent weather, lightning, and tornadoes. Tenger are very powerful and cannot be controlled, but they can be called for
assistance during shamanist rituals. The sky is also home to the endur spirits, who are the suns souls of humans that have
lived such outstanding lives that they do not return to the lower world. They are not as powerful as tenger, but live in clouds
and cause rain to fall.
The
earth is home to a great variety of spirits, including chotgor, ozoor, ongon, burhan, and gazriin ezen spirits. Among many
Siberian tribes these nature spirits are known collectively as the ayyy. Chotgor spirits, also known as kut or abaasy, are
frequently the cause of disease, mental illness, or confusion. Some chotgor are the suns spirits of dead people who did not
find their way to the lower world or came back from the lower world. In such cases a shaman simply needs to send them to their
proper home. Other troublesome spirits have never been incarnated but simply exist in nature. After being mastered by a shaman
they can become helper spirits. Ozoor, ongon, and burhan spirits are generally neutral in their effects on people, but may
occasionally cause problems. Ozoor and ongon spirits are frequently the suld souls of ancestors that are freely ranging in
nature. They are some of the most important helper spirits of shamans. A special type of ongon spirit, known as the utha,
follows shaman lineages and becomes like an extra soul as well as guide for the shaman. It does not incarnate in a shaman’s
body but is a carrier of the collective memories of all the shamans that it has been associated with in the past. An utha
spirit may start out as a shaman ancestor but after the original shaman of the lineage dies it attaches itself to shamans-to-be,
bringing on the initiatory vision. Burhan spirits are very strong, and usually cannot be mastered by a shaman but simply urged
to leave a patient alone if it causes illness. Shamans with very strong spirit helpers may be able to gain control of a burhan;
in such a case it is tamed into a less powerful ongon spirit.
Gazriin
ezen are the master spirits of places on the earth, including mountains, bodies of water, rocks, trees, settlements, buildings,
even countries. They sometimes come in conflict with ancestor spirits that want to inhabit the spots in nature that belong
to them. Some funeral customs are directed at reconciling the suld spirit of the deceased and the gazriin ezen so that the
ancestor spirit will be able to reside in nature peacefully.
Spirits
of Animals, Totems, Animal Guides, and Hunting
The
world of the forest and waters is the home of wild animals upon whom man relies to survive. Animals are called amitan, "having
an ami soul", because like human beings they possess an ami body soul which provides the breath and warmth of the living
body. Ami souls of animals usually reincarnate as newborn members of their species, so deer return as more deer, seals return
as seals, or bears reincarnate as bears. Since they have souls animals are considered to have personalities, language, and
even psychic abilities just like humans.
The
master spirit of all the hunting animals is known as Bayan Ahaa (rich older brother). Hunters appeal to him for fortune in
finding game. The highest ranking animals of the wild are the Siberian tiger, the snow leopard, and the bear. Buryat call
the tiger Anda Bars (best friend tiger) and pray to him for good hunting. In much of Siberia the bear is seen as a master
of the animals and revered as an ancestor. Many Siberian tribes have special ceremonies for honoring the bear after he is
killed.
Because animals
possess reincarnating souls, there are many rules regarding the killing of game so that their souls will not be offended.
Otherwise, they may become angry and refuse to return to the tribal hunting grounds or tell other animal spirits to stay away.
When a large animal is killed or a large fish is caught, the hunter or fisherman may cry over its death to appease the animal
spirit. Hunters also apologize to animals when they are killed, saying that they needed to take the meat and hide for their
survival. Domestic animals are also killed in a respectful manner. Heads are not chopped off because cutting the throat injures
the ami soul. The head, throat, lungs, and heart, which is collectively called the zuld, is the residence of an animal’s
ami and should be removed from the body as one piece. When an animal is killed for a sacrifice the hide and the zuld are hung
up on poles pointing to heaven. After bears are eaten the skull or sometimes the whole skeleton is placed on a pole or platform
in the forest.
This respect
for animal spirits dictates certain rules for hunting. First, when entering the forest one should act reverent and not laugh,
run or yell, but move gently and stealthily like an animal. Throwing sticks in the woods is an insult to Bayan Ahaa and the
forest spirits and therefore taboo (nugeltei). Urinating or throwing rocks into bodies of water is likewise forbidden. Animals
should never be killed except for food or fur, and it should be done in a quick and humane way. Game must be shared in the
community and not hoarded, and the carcass must be butchered in a customary (yostoi) manner. Following these simple rules
ensured the return of game and a good relationship with the animal spirits
Rivers, lakes, streams, and the ocean is the residence of the water
animals as well as a passageway for spirits traveling between the worlds. The loon and goldeneye duck are considered to be
special water birds. There is a legend among many Siberian peoples that in the very earliest time the earth was covered with
water, and that the loon and goldeneye duck brought up mud from the bottom of the sea and piled it up until land appeared.
The loon is a very special water bird because of its diving habits. Water is full of spirits and the loon above all other
birds is believed to communicate with the souls in the water. The cry of the loon is frequently imitated in the songs of Mongolian
and Siberian shamans. Among the fish the pike is considered powerful and images of this fish are used in shaman rituals from
the Samoyed in the west to the Tungus in eastern Siberia.
Animals
who appear in nature are sometimes shamans who take on animal forms while traveling in spirit to do their work. They may take
the form of birds, mammals, reptiles or even fish. Some stories recount occasions where an animal has been killed by a hunter
and a shaman falls dead while conducting a ritual because the animal had actually been his soul. Ancestor spirits or ordinary
people’s souls may also occasionally take on animal form The Dagur Mongols say that the porcupine, snake, fox, weasel,
spider, and pheasant are especially likely to be shamans who are soul traveling; most of these are not normally eaten.
Certain animals are considered to be totems
or symbolic ancestors for tribes or clans. The most famous are Blue Wolf and Red Deer, the mythical ancestors of the Mongols.
The Buryat also recognize a bull as their ancestor. Throughout Siberia the eagle is also looked at as a totemic ancestor,
and in Mongolia the eagle is associated with the shaman tradition. Among the Yakut individual clans recognize a specific mammal
or bird as its totem animal. The name of the animal is taboo and it is referred to in everyday speech by other names. In Mongolian
the lack of a literal name for the bear is probably due to this custom because the bear is recognized as an ancestor by almost
all Siberian peoples. In Mongolia the name of the wolf is also taboo among many groups.
Animal spirits are also guides and teachers for shamans. According
to Yakut tradition, once a shaman has contacted his shaman spirit, it will introduce him to the power animal which will be
his guide. This animal is called the "animal double," or "animal mother." From that time onward not only
would the shaman be taught by the animal, but would also take on its form while traveling in spirit. As a shaman grows in
power he will add to his collection of power animals. A shaman’s outfit normally has whole skins or pieces of fur from
several different kinds of animals which are ongon spirit houses for the power animals to which they belong.
Sacred Mountains and Trees
Mountains, stream, forest, and individual rocks
and trees are all part of Mother Earth, but are also the home of gazriin ezen, nature spirits. Some if not all of them were
once souls of human beings, ancestors from so long ago that their numerous descendants no longer remember them and the spirit
no longer has any connection with them. Looking back on the hundreds of thousands of years of human history it is easy to
imagine how many of these spirits exist out in nature. A mountain or tree of great majesty will be said to have suld, which
is the same word that is used to refer to the soul which remains in nature after death. Unusual rocks or trees are believed
to have a strong spirit and are respected or given offerings of tobacco or liquor. Because these spirits are found throughout
nature it is considered very taboo to offend them by needlessly damaging natural features or mutilating trees. An angry nature
spirit is very powerful and can create a lot of problems for a person or community until a shaman can placate or control it.
Mountain spirits are considered to be very
powerful, and are prayed to provide good hunting and abundance of natural food plants. These ceremonies are usually held roughly
around the times of the equinoxes and solstices and are usually done by the elders of the local clan or tribe. Mountain spirits
and other powerful gazriin ezen are worshiped at special shrines called oboo, which are tall piles of rocks and tree branches
roughly conical in diameter, about 6-10 feet tall. When passing by an oboo travelers are required to walk around it three
times and place a rock on it. In doing this not only is a person showing respect for the spirit, which would be the least
required of him, but by adding to the spirit’s power symbolically by adding the rock he is receiving windhorse and good
luck for his journey. Oboo are also the sites of several ceremonies during the year which nearby families or clans would celebrate
in honor of the local spirit as well as Father Heaven and Mother Earth and other shamanist spirits. Oboos not only represent
mountains, but by their upward pointing nature they also represent a point of closer contact between heaven and earth, just
as a mountaintop is considered to be closer to Tenger and therefore spiritually powerful.
The Spirit World
In the world view of Mongolian shamanism the spirit world is not seen as much different
from the physical world except that spirits have a different essence; in fact, the separation of the natural and spirit worlds
is rather arbitrary since spirits are in everything everywhere. Spirits have different properties from beings with physical
bodies, they can fly and travel anywhere with tremendous speed and see and sense things over great distances or in the past
or future. What Westerners call telepathy or psychic abilities is merely the talent to sense things using the abilities of
the spirits which inhabit human beings. People with strong windhorse are especially capable of psychic powers because windhorse
raises one’s psychic energy. Shamans routinely take on qualities of spirits during their rituals, being able to fly
freely to other places or sense things far away or in spirit form through the aid of their utha and other helpers..
A Multiplicity of Souls, their Form and Function
All humans and animals possess more than one
soul; multiple souls are required in order to inhabit a physical body. Throughout Siberia and Mongolia it is believed that
all humans possess at least three souls; some groups such as the Samoyed believe there are more, four in women and five in
men. Animals also possess two souls, the ami body soul and the suns soul, both of which reincarnate. For this reason, the
game animals possess souls which return again and again to their habitat and must therefore not be offended. Human beings
possess the following three souls (for simplicity I give only the Mongolian names):
* The suld soul, which
resides in nature after death
* The ami body soul, which
reincarnates
* The suns soul, which also reincarnates
The three souls reside in the field of energy
that envelops the physical body. Of the three, the one most vital to life is the suld, if it is separated from the body death
is practically inevitable. The other two souls may be separated temporarily from the physical body without harm. A living
being occupies a spherical field of energy. This sphere has an upright axis within it, pierced by seven holes that correspond
to the seven chakras. The suld soul resides at the crown of the head, where there is a direct connection to Father Heaven
through the small tenger that is also located there. The other two souls oscillate back and forth through the holes of the
body axis in a sine wave pattern. In order to be perfectly balanced, the suns and ami souls should always be on opposite sides
of the axis. When a person become excited, the circulation of the souls through the seven holes speeds up, causing the heart
to beat faster and creating a feeling of high energy or tension. The balance of the suns and ami souls can be thrown off balance
by spiritual attack or physical trauma. In the most serious the ami or suns may get knocked out of the body and if this continues
for a long time it will result in illness or mental confusion. In cases of soul imbalance or loss a shaman’s help is
needed to restore order. The strength of the souls is proportional to the amount of hiimori (windhorse) a person possesses.
Human awareness (setgel) is centered around the chest area and while the brain is recognized as being important to bodily
function, the ultimate seat of consciousness is in the chest.
The
suld is the most individualized of the three human souls. It lives in a physical body only once, then takes residence in nature.
After death it remains around the body for a while and some groups create ongon spirit houses for these souls in order to
keep them near and have their aid and protection. After eight or so generations the suld will become a nature spirit. The
suld carries no past life experiences so it develops the characteristics that distinguishes a person from other people. Charisma
and dignity are evidence of a strong suld soul; for that reason suld is also used to describe the majesty of mountains or
trees.
The ami is the
soul that enlivens the body. It is related to the ability to breathe, amisgal. It returns after death to the World Tree, where
it roosts in its branches between heaven and earth in the form of a bird. Ami souls tend to reincarnate among their relatives.
They are under the care of the womb goddess Umai, who dispatches them on spirit horses, omisi murin, to enter the body at
the time of birth. While the ami may be temporarily displaced during illness, the ami does not leave permanently until after
death.
The suns soul,
like the suld soul, contributes to the formation of a person’s personality, but carries the collected experiences of
past lives within it. The suns is an inhabitant of the lower world between incarnations but may return as a ghost to visit
friends or relatives. Erleg Khan, ruler of the lower world, is responsible for the disposition of the suns, and determines
when and where it reincarnates. If a soul was extremely evil during its life on earth he may send it to Ela Guren, a part
of the lower world where souls are extinguished forever. The suns may also temporarily leave the body and sometimes wander
as far as the lower world, which may require a shaman to negotiate with Erleg Khan for its return.
The triad of souls which comprises human beings can be seen as a combination
of essences from all three worlds. The suld is the most closely tied to this world because it lives no place else. The ami
lives on the World Tree and is practically a being of the upper world. The suns is definitely a part of the lower world. The
need for multiple souls in order to be a visible physical entity implies that a physical living being represents an intersection
of spirits from more than one of the three worlds.
The
Siberian Circle of Life and the Water Cycle
While
the ami soul is related to breath, the suns soul is tied to water. Waterways are passages for travel for the suns souls, especially
the World River which enters the middle world by the World Tree in the south then flows into the lower world in the north.
Of course this belief would seem natural because the great waterways of North Asia all feed into the Arctic Ocean Like the
constantly renewing flow of water in these great rivers, suns souls return to the earth again and again. A model has been
developed out of the various myths explaining this process which exist throughout Siberia. According to this model, souls
enter the world through the source of the World River by the World Tree, where Umai stands watch over the ami souls. At the
time of birth, the reincarnating souls come down the river and enter the infant at the time of birth. At death, the suns travels
down the river to the Arctic Ocean and the entrance to the lower world while the ami takes the form of a bird and flies back
to the World Tree. In order to return to this world the suns will either travel underground to the World River’s source
or travel along the Milky Way to the lands in the south where the upper and middle worlds touch.
This cycle of life presents an interesting parallel to the water cycle,
which generations of native peoples could not have failed to understand to some degree. Water falls on the earth as rain and
flows from the ground at springs (springs are considered a gateway to the lower world). It flows ultimately into the ocean,
where evaporation raises water once more to the heavens so it can fall on earth again as rain. In the same way, human souls
follow the World River to the sea, only once more to emerge at its source in order to incarnate once more.
When Spirit and Earth Touch: Customs, Taboos,
and Ongons
As I stated
earlier, the spirit and physical worlds are not really separated since they touch in many places everywhere. However, there
are certain situations where the spirit world and this world touch in dramatic ways that require special notice and are regulated
by specific rules of behavior. This can be embodied in a person, such as a shaman, a newborn, or a deceased individual. Physical
sites where spirit and earth touch are in sacred sites such as mountains, trees, or oboo, or in a specially devised dwelling
place for a spirit called an ongon. Contact with spirits can be beneficial or detrimental depending on the type of spirit
involved and its character. It can also present some danger to the well being of a person’s souls because they may be
tempted to follow spirits into other worlds.
While
contact with a shaman is normally quite safe because his spirits are employed for beneficial purposes, other people with contact
with the spirit world can be quite dangerous. Spirit possession or influence can cause illness or insanity, and must be ended
quickly. Newborn children and their mothers are sequestered for a certain amount of time following birth, not only to protect
the newly entered souls of the child, but also because the entry of the souls through the mother makes her slightly other-worldly
and dangerous to other humans. In the same way the household of a person who has died as well as the persons who dispose of
the body become temporarily taboo because of their presence at the exit of souls from the world. The name of a dead person
may remain taboo for a period of time lasting from a few days to forever. It is believed that the mention of the dead person’s
name may call him or her back from the lower world or cause it to stay around. This is dangerous because dead people may try
to take the suns souls of the ones they loved.
Spiritually
powerful places in nature require respect of the spirits that dwell there. Insults to the spirits can result in their attack
on the offending person or his community. On the other hand, honoring the spirits of these places bring good luck and prosperity.
A special site of contact between spirits and
the physical world are ongons, specially created houses for spirits. These are beneficial as long as they are treated with
honor. Ongons are one of the most important shamanist tools in Mongolia and Siberia, and almost all tribes use them. They
come in many different forms; they can be carved out of wood, painted on leather, mounted on a wooden hoop or made out of
metal. The materials used to make ongons includes wood, leather, felt, rocks, paper, fur, feathers, and metal. Some ongons
are abstract and some resemble dolls. While the ongon may be made by ordinary people they are enlivened by the shaman who
calls the spirit to occupy it. Most ongons are occupied by ancestor spirits or animal spirits, but some contain very powerful
nature spirits. After being quickened an ongon is honored by being placed in the sacred place of the ger and fed offerings
of liquor, blood, milk, or fat. Two of the most important ongons which are found in Mongolian households are Zol Zayaach and
Avgaldai. Zol Zayaach is depicted as a male-female pair and is a protector of the household and herds; Avgaldai is a copper
mask of the bear ancestor and is occasionally worn by a shaman in the triennial ominan ritual which honors all of the spirits
and initiates new shamans. Shamans normally have a large set of ongons which house their helper spirits; in fact the shaman
costume itself is an ongon of the shaman’s utha spirit. Special ongons may be created for healing and soul retrieval
ceremonies and left with a patient in order to carry on the healing process and protect the patient’s souls. Temporary
ongons of wood or grass are sometimes used in rituals to hold a disease spirit which is then released when the ongon is discarded
out in nature afterward. Ongons are passed down from generation to generation because the spirit will continue to live in
them and neglect of the spirit may make it turn hostile.
The
Shaman
Referring to
the spirituality of Mongolia and Siberia as shamanism is somewhat misleading, because a shaman is not revered himself but
rather respected because of his special relationship with the spirits. Some scholars have taken to calling this traditional
religion Tengrism, which is more appropriate because worship is centered on Tenger and the spirits. Everyday religious practices
honoring the spirits does not require a shaman; only when his powers are needed to restore balance or heal illness will a
shaman be called for assistance. Some tribes have more than one type of shaman, among some groups they are ranked by their
power, or they will be differentiated as white or black depending on what spirits they use and where they travel. Among the
southernmost Mongolian groups, such as the Dagur shamans work alongside other shamanlike practitioners such as bonesetters
and other folk doctors some of whom also have helper spirits. Many groups have only one kind of shaman who is capable of doing
the work of white or black shamans as well as folk doctors. For the sake of simplicity this type of shaman will be the model
for the description in this paper.
Becoming
a Shaman
Shamans are
distinguished from other people in that they have a shaman spirit which selects and initiates them. This spirit is known by
many names, including utha, and onggor among the Buryat and Dagur. It acts like an extra soul and is a source of power and
controls the shaman’s encounters with other spirits, some of which may also become helper spirits. While a shaman may
show a proclivity for shamanizing from an early age, the utha (I use the Buryat term for simplicity) will manifest itself
suddenly, resulting in mental or physical illness. During the course of the illness the shaman-to-be will have a vision in
which the utha will initiate him. Common elements in the vision include travel to the upper world and the dismemberment and
reassembly of the shaman’s body so that it will be new and empowered for his work. When the new shaman falls ill, the
shaman who will examine him will recognize at once that he has been selected by an utha spirit. At that point if he agrees
to become a shaman he can be healed, otherwise he will usually die. The training and initiation which follow his recovery
are only a confirmation of the initiation which he experienced in the spirit world.
The duties of a shaman include healing, blessing, protection, hunting
magic, and occasionally weather magic. Healing is the most important of these because spirits are the cause of illness. Spirits
can also be called to provide protection and improve luck. Hunting magic rituals put the shaman in touch with the animal and
nature spirits who provide or withhold game. Weather magic usually involves rainmaking or sending lightning back to the sky,
and requires direct contact with Tenger. Some rituals such as the oboo ceremony and ominan ritual last for several days and
are meant to promote the welfare of the entire community. Shamans’ work may vary from simple fortunetelling to grand
rituals lasting several days. Depending on the difficulty of the task a shaman may invoke his spirits to help him or to actually
enter his body when a lot of power is needed. Shamans usually sing, drum and dance during performances.
Shamans use several different tools in their
work. Their costume and ongons are actual residences of their helper spirits. A one-sided hand held drum, usually 60 cm or
more in diameter is used to drive the singing and dancing which are a part of most ceremonies. After the drum the most important
tool of the shaman is the toli, a metallic circular mirror. A shaman will attach many toli to his costume if he can obtain
them, but one toli over the chest is most important. A toli acts like armor, deflecting spirit attack, it can reflect light
to blind spirits, and is also absorbs energy from the universe to increase the shaman’s power. Most shamans usually
also have one or two staffs that represent horses which he rides on spirit journeys. Another tool which is found in many tribes
is the dalbuur, a ritual fan which is used to drive out spirits from patients. Other musical instruments may be used by shamans,
the jaws harp (aman huur) being the most common. Shamans from some tribes use masks, but the most common one is the bear mask
used for the ominan ritual.
Drumming,
Hallucinogens, Paths to Ecstasy
Although
shamans are noted for going into trance for doing their work, not all rituals require it and the shaman performs many tasks
in an ordinary state of consciousness. When an altered state of consciousness is required, however, there are many techniques
which boost the shaman into the ecstatic state of mind that allows him to take on the qualities of a spirit and become clairvoyant
and capable of spirit travel. Most rituals employ several of these techniques together in order to bring the shaman to ecstasy.
The setting of the ritual is crucial to the
effectiveness of a ritual. Shamanizing at night is conducive to achieving the trance state; in fact many spirits are not as
effective when called during the day. The people attending the ritual can help the shaman reach a trance state by echoing
parts of his song, beating drums, or shouting along with the drumming. Circle dances can raise energy and propel the shaman
into the upper world.
The beating
of the shaman drum is the most powerful way to induce trance. Scientific studies have shown that repetitive rhythms at certain
frequencies can induce a hypnotic state similar to the trance of shamans. Shaman’s drumming, however, does not have
a metronome-like steadiness, but rather will slow down or speed up, get louder or softer depending on the state of the shaman’s
mind at a given moment. Mongolian and Siberian drums are generally large in diameter and have a deep resonating sound that
will vibrate through the shaman’s body, and the drum is frequently held near the face or over the head so that the beat
will resonate through the head and upper body with great force.
Intoxicants
may be consumed before or during the ritual. Shamans frequently drink alcohol before shamanizing and pause at points during
the ritual to smoke tobacco. Juniper, which is mildly hallucinogenic, is used in practically all rituals in Mongolia and in
many parts of Siberia. The fumes of juniper will be waved in the face and inhaled, and the air of the ger will become thick
with juniper smoke during the ritual. Sacred smoke is believed to raise windhorse and is pleasing to the spirits. A more potent
hallucinogen, the muscaria mushroom, has been connected with Siberian and Mongolian shamanism from ancient times. Mushrooms
may not always be consumed during shamanist rituals, but shamans may also consume the dried mushrooms on order to achieve
ecstasy during times between rituals.
Climbing
the toroo tree is another path to ecstasy. In Mongolian the word to go out and to go up are the same word, garah. Chabros
has suggested that the connection between those two meanings lies in shamanism. By symbolically ascending the representation
of the World Tree the shaman is literally going out of this world into the world of spirit. The toroo tree has nine steps,
and as the shaman climbs higher and higher, at the same time singing, the drumming and the encouragements of his audience
will bring him to the ecstatic state. Some shamans will show their contact with the spirit world by singing hoomei (overtone
or throat singing), which consists of a base note and a whistling overtone note. The overtones represent the contact with
the spirit world while remaining physically on earth (represented by the base tone).
Riding the Cosmic Steed
Shaman trance entails travel on the spirit plane of existence, and
the shaman usually experiences this as either flying or riding an animal which will carry him to the place in the three world
where he is needed. These spirit journeys may take the shaman to places in this world, or may require him to travel to the
upper or lower worlds. Lower world journeys are usually only required in cases of soul retrieval or bringing a dead person’s
soul to Erleg Khan. Most other rituals will require the shaman to travel on earth or ascend to the upper world. Lower world
journeys are the most difficult, and only the strongest shamans can go there safely.
Spirit journeys usually start by moving upward, and even when going
to the lower world the trip will start with flight, frequently out through the smoke hole of the ger. The shaman may take
the from of a bird or ride a flying supernatural mount. During the course of the journey the shaman may change form several
times, at one point being a bird, at the next in human form, and then taking on the form of a bear, depending on which spirits
are guiding him or entering his body. The shaman may utter animal sounds as he goes through these transformations. He may
appear to be unconscious during the journey, or may remain conscious but in a trancelike state and will be capable of moving
around, dancing, or even telling his audience about what he sees. While in this state of mind the shaman is capable of acting
completely out of character and can perform dangerous feats that he would be incapable of doing otherwise such as stabbing
himself or walking on fire. Most Altaic shamans speak of passing nine landmarks (olohs) during a journey regardless of which
world they are traveling in.
The
mount which a shaman rides during his travels is usually a flying horse or deer. These are physically represented by the one
or two shaman staffs which he keeps handy during the ritual, or may be represented by his drum. Before a ritual starts the
drum is warmed by the fire, this is called amiluulah, making the drum come alive. The drum not only drives the vision by its
steady beat, but is literally the steed upon which the shaman rides to his destination. Upon returning from his journey the
shaman will cough or belch to expel the spirits which were riding with him inside his body. He then sings in praise of his
spirit helpers before completing the ritual.
Healing
and Causes of Illness
The root
cause of all illness is imbalance of a person’s souls caused either by intrusions by foreign spirits or outright soul
loss caused by spiritual or physical trauma. Shamans are aware of the fact that the physical symptoms of illness must also
be treated, and herbal medicines are administered by shamans in addition to the spiritual healing. The spiritual aspect of
the illness however is important because the physical symptoms alone are not the true problem. Spirit intrusion and soul loss
suppress the body’s natural capability to heal itself, so unless the spiritual ailment is cured the physical disease
will never truly be healed.
Spirits
that cause illness may be chotgor, hostile ancestor spirits, burhan, or evil shamans. Chotgor, ancestor spirits, and other
less powerful nature spirits can often be cured by singing or waving of the dalbuur over the patient. The disease spirit may
also be removed by sucking or pulling gestures that draw it out of the body. More powerful spirits or hostile shamans will
require going into trance. Burhan are the most powerful and may need sacrifices to make them go away. The shaman may use knives,
a red hot iron, or a bow and arrow to scare the disease spirit or blind it with reflected light from his mirror. An ongon
or the toli may be used to catch a spirit in order to keep it from jumping into another person when it is expelled, or the
shaman may temporarily absorb it into his body. In such cases the shaman travels part of the way to the lower world and then
bids the spirit to return to the lower world and leave the patient alone. If a temporary ongon is used it is then thrown away
in a natural place or destroyed so that the spirit will not return to it.
Some healings actually involve spiritual warfare. A shaman may physically struggle
violently with a stubborn spirit, even using weapons, and his spirits fight alongside him to subdue or drive away the intruder.
A special nature spirit may be called specifically for the healing and housed in an ongon that will protect the patient. When
a hostile shaman is causing illness an ongoing war between the local clan shaman and that of an enemy clan may ensue. These
spiritual battles may last for long periods of time and may result in the death of the weaker shaman. Shamans who routinely
aggressively attack other people may lose their ability to heal, however, and such shamans lose their status within the community
or are even killed
Soul retrieval
is usually necessary in cases of severe and chronic illness. The absence of the ami or suns souls make it practically impossible
for a body to function normally. The ami soul remains in this world and can generally be easily found and returned to the
body by a shaman. The suns may linger near the body, but if it goes on to the lower world a difficult and dangerous journey
by the shaman is required to return it. When a lost soul is found it is placed in the shaman’s ear or inside the drum
for the return trip, then shaken out back into the body. When a spirit has stolen a soul the shaman may need to fight it to
let it go. Soul retrievals are the most dangerous work for shamans because they have to travel outside their bodies for long
distances and they are vulnerable to attack and soul loss themselves during the journey.
An Overview of the Model of Mongolian Shamanism
In the previous few sections I have presented
the basic ideas of Mongolian shamanism. The essential characteristics can be summarized as follows
* Living beings live happy
productive lives by promoting balance in the world and observing the customs of respect toward Father Heaven, Mother Earth,
and the spirits
* The world is a circle oriented toward the
south, with Father Heaven above, Mother Earth below; the right side is male and the left female
* The sacredness of fire
* One’s personal power can be increased by living a yostoi life and revering the spirits and living things
* The presence and protection of the spirits of the ancestors
* Humanlike sentient spirits in the heavens, animals, trees, mountains, and
other natural features
* Power and totem animals
* Human beings are a combination of 3 souls in addition to the physical body
* There are three worlds, the lower, middle, and upper worlds connected by
the World River and the World Tree
* Shamans have a special
helper spirit that initiates him and empowers him to restore balance to the world
* The use of the drum, ongons, shaman staffs, dalbuur, sacred smoke, hallucinogens
* Shamans’ chief duties include healing, invoking protection, blessing,
divination, hunting magic and weather magic
*
The causes of illness are due to spiritual forces disrupting a person’s souls by either intruding into the body or stealing
one of the souls. This requires expulsion of the foreign spirit or soul retrieval
Click here to send E-mail message to Golomt:
Sarangerel
odigan (Sara)
(Julie Stewart)
Golomt Center for Shamanist Studies
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
ITcorp@magicnet.mn
Created
by the ShamanSouth Staff
Last
Updated October 3, 1997
©
Golomt Center for Shamanist Studies - all rights reserved, 1997
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